|
|
** Transcriber's Notes **
Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface;
words enclosed in /slashes/ represent underlined words. Words enclosed in
~tildes~ represent a wavy underline.
To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are
used:
- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals
signs (==).
- Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--).
- Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\).
- Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no
horizontal line under them.
- Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..)
- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (')
- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`)
- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this:
----, helping
'---------
- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like
this:
\wai
\ ting
---------
** End Transcriber's Notes **
GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH.
AN
ELEMENTARY
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
CONSISTING OF
ONE HUNDRED PRACTICAL LESSONS,
CAREFULLY GRADED AND ADAPTED TO THE CLASS-ROOM,
BY
ALONZO REED, A.M.,
PART II
LESSON 88.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
+_Remember_+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the
_comparative_ degree is commonly used; when more than two, the
_superlative_ is employed.
+_Caution_+.--Adjectives should not be _doubly_ compared.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Of all the boys, George is the more industrious.
Peter was older than the twelve apostles.
Which is the longer of the rivers of America?
This was the most unkindest cut of all.
He chose a more humbler part.
My hat is more handsomer than yours.
The younger of those three boys is the smarter.
Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota?
+_Caution_+.--Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
The weather is horrid.
That dress is perfectly awful.
Your coat sits frightfully.
We had an awfully good time.
This is a tremendously hard lesson.
Harry is a mighty nice boy.
+_Remember_+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different
degrees cannot be compared; as, _every_, _universal_.
Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as
admit of comparison.
All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite,
three-legged, bright.
+_Adverbs_+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following
are compared regularly. Compare them.
Fast, often, soon, late, early.
In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as
adjectives.
The following are compared irregularly. Learn them.
_Pos. Comp. Sup. _
----------- ---------- --------
Badly, Ill, worse, worst.
Well, better, best.
Little, less, least.
Much, more, most.
Far, farther, farthest.
Adverbs ending in _ly_ are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and
_most_. Compare the following.
Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily.
+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and
adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and
continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p.
188.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is
comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are
adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and
the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and
adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How
are adverbs compared?
LESSON 89.
MODIFICATION OF VERBS.
VOICE.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_I picked the rose_. I will tell the same
thing in another way. _The rose was picked by me_. The first verb _picked_
shows that the subject _I_ represents the actor, and the second form of the
verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This
change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called
the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+.
The _passive_ form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action
without naming any actor. _Money is coined_ is better than _somebody coins
money_.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether
the subject names the _actor_ or the _thing acted upon_+.
+The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+.
+The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon+.
In each of the following sentences, change the _voice_ of the verb without
changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in
the sentence.
The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers.
The storm drove the vessel against the rock.
Our words should be carefully chosen.
Death separates the dearest friends.
His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health.
True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor.
The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the
Peninsula, never lost a battle.
Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt.
Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa.
The English were conquered by the Normans.
Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their
_voice_.
LESSON 90.
MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, _James walks_, I assert the
walking as a _fact_. When I say, _James may walk_, I do not assert the
action as a fact, but as a _possible_ action. When I say, _If James walk
out, he will improve_, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a
_condition_ of James's, improving. When I say to James, _Walk out_, I do
not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a
_command_.
The action expressed by the verb _walk_ has been asserted in _four_
different _ways_, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative
Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+;
the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+.
Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this
instruction.
For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+,
see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49.
_I walk. I walked. I shall walk_. In each of these three sentences, the
manner of asserting the action is the same. _I walk_ expresses the action
as _present_. _I walked_ expresses the action as _past_, and _I shall walk_
expresses the action as _future_. As +Tense+ means _time_, the first form
is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third,
the +Future Tense+.
We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as _completed_
in the _present_, the _past_, or the _future_.
_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have
walked out by to-morrow_. The form, _have walked_, expressing the action as
_completed_ in the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The
form, _had walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the past, is
called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form, _shall have walked_, expressing
an action to be _completed_ in the future, is called the +Future Perfect
Tense+.
Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and
explain the different tenses.
_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk_.
In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in
the third, it was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of
agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees
with the subject _thou_ in the second person, and the verb ending in _s_
agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject
is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to
agree with they in the plural.
Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The
person and number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 94.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of
asserting the action or being+.
+The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+.
+The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity
of acting or being+.
+The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition,
supposition, or wish+.
+The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an
entreaty+.
+The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in
a general way, without asserting it of anything+.
+The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an
adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.
+The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time
indicated by the predicate+.
+The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the
time indicated by the predicate+.
+The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a
time previous to that indicated by the predicate+.
+_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the
action or being+.
+The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+.
+The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+.
+The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+.
+The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the
present time+.
+The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some
past time+.
+The _Future Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being to be completed at
some future time+.
+_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb are those modifications that show its
agreement with the number and person of its subject+.
LESSON 91.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+.
+_Synopsis_ is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and
person in all the modes and tenses+.
+_Auxiliary Verbs_ are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+.
The auxiliaries are _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, and
_must_.
+The _Principal Parts_ of a verb are the present indicative or the present
infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+.
These are called _principal parts_, because all the other forms of the verb
are derived from them.
We give, below, the _principal parts_ of some of the most important
_irregular verbs_. Learn them.
_Present_. _Past_. _Past. Par._
Be _or_ am, was, been.
Begin, began, begun.
Blow, blew, blown.
Break, broke, broken.
Choose, chose, chosen.
Come, came, come.
Do, did, done.
Draw, drew, drawn.
Drink, drank, drunk.
Drive, drove, driven.
Eat, ate, eaten.
Fall, fell, fallen.
Fly, flew, flown.
Freeze, froze, frozen.
Go, went, gone.
Get, got, got _or_ gotten.
Give, gave, given.
Grow, grew, grown.
Have, had, had.
Know, knew, known.
Lay, laid, laid.
Lie, (to rest) lay, lain.
Ride, rode, ridden.
Ring, rang _or_ rung, rung.
Rise, rose, risen.
Run, ran, run.
See, saw, seen.
Set, set, set.
Sit, sat, sat.
Shake, shook, shaken.
Sing, sang _or_ sung, sung.
Slay, slew, slain.
Speak, spoke, spoken.
Steal, stole, stolen.
Swim, swam _or_ swum, swum.
Take, took, taken.
Tear, tore, torn.
Throw, threw, thrown.
Wear, wore, worn.
Write, wrote, written.
The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ because some of
their parts are wanting.
_Present_. _Past_. | _Present_. _Past_.
--------------------|---------------------
Can, could. | Will, would.
May, might. | Must, ----
Shall, should. | Ought, ----
LESSON 92.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM.
+PRINCIPAL PARTS+.
_Pres_. _Past_. _Past Par._
See, saw, seen.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I see, 1. We see,
2. You see, _or_ 2. You see,
Thou seest,
3. He sees; 3. They see.
PAST TENSE.
1. I saw, 1. We saw,
2. You saw, _or_ 2. You saw,
Thou sawest,
3. He saw; 3. They saw.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I shall see, 1. We shall see,
2. You will see, _or_ 2. You will see,
Thou wilt see,
3. He will see; 3. They will see.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have seen, 1. We have seen,
2. You have seen, _or_ 2. You have seen,
Thou hast seen
3. He has seen; 3. They have seen.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had seen, 1. We had seen,
2. You had seen, _or_ 2. You had seen,
Thou hadst seen,
3. He had seen; 3. They had seen.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen,
2. You will have seen, _or_ 2. You will have seen,
Thou wilt have seen,
3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I may see, 1. We may see,
2. You may see, _or_ 2. You may see,
Thou mayst see,
3. He may see; 3. They may see.
PAST TENSE.
1. I might see, 1. We might see,
2. You might see, _or_
Thou mightst see, 2. You might see,
3. He might see; 3. They might see.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen,
2. You may have seen, _or_ 2. You may have seen
Thou mayst have seen,
3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen,
2. You might have seen, _or_ 2. You might have seen,
Thou mightst have seen,
3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. If I see, 1. If we see,
2. If you see, _or_ 2. If you see,
If thou see,
3. If he see; 3. If they see.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. See (you _or_ thou); 2. See (you).
INFINITIVES.
PRESENT TENSE.
To see.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
To have seen.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.
Seeing, Seen, Having seen.
+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple
present _see_, and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the
past tense.
Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and
_should_, in place of _might_.
Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all
changes for agreement in number and person.
A majority of modern writers use the _indicative_ forms instead of the
_subjunctive_, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the _present_. The
_subjunctive_ forms of the verb _to be_ are retained in the present and the
past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not
always correspond with the actual meaning. _The ship sails next week. I may
go to-morrow_. The verbs _sails_ and _may go_ are _present_ in form but
_future_ in meaning. _If it rains by noon, he may not come_. The verb
_rains_ is _indicative_ in form but _subjunctive_ in meaning.
The plural forms, _You saw, You were_, etc., are used in the _singular_
also.
LESSON 93.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB--SIMPLE FORM.
Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb _walk.
Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked_.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I / _Pres_ /, 1. We / _Pres_ /,
2. You / _Pres_ /, 2. You / _Pres_ /,
Thou / _Pres_ /est,
3. He / _Pres_ /s; 3. They / _Pres_ /.
PAST TENSE
1. I / _Past_ /, 1. We / _Past_ /,
2. You / _Past_ /, 2. You / _Past_ /,
Thou / _Past_ /st,
3. He / _Past_ /; 3. They / _Past_ /.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I _shall_ / _Pres_ /, 1. We _will_ / _Pres_ /,
2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /, 2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /,
Thou _wil-t_ / _Pres_ /,
3. He _will_ / _Pres_ /; 3. They _will_ / _Pres_ /.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I _have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _have_ /_Past Par._/,
2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/,
Thou _ha-st_ /_Past Par._/,
3. He _ha-s_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _have_ /_Past Par._/.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I _had_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _had_ /_Past Par._/,
2. You _had_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _had_ /_Past Par._/,
Thou _had-st_ /_Past Par._/,
3. He _had_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _had_ /_Past Par._/.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. I _shall have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _will have_ _Past Par._,
2. You _will have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _will have_ _Past Par._,
Thou _wil-t have_ /_Past Par._/,
3. He _will have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _will have_ _Past Par._.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. I _may_ / _Pres._ /, 1. We _may_ / _Pres._ /,
2. You _may_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _may_ / _Pres._ /,
Thou _may-st_ / _Pres._ /,
3. He _may_ / _Pres._ /; 3. They _may_ / _Pres._ /.
PAST TENSE.
1. I _might_ / _Pres._ /, 1. We _might_ / _Pres._ /,
2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /,
Thou _might-st_ / _Pres._ /,
3. He _might_ / _Pres._ /; 3. They _might_ / _Pres._ /.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _may have_ /_Past Par._/,
2. You _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _may have_ /_Past Par._/,
Thou _may-st have_ /_Past Par._/,
3. He _may have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _may have_ /_Past Par._/.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _might have_ /_Past Par._/,
2. You _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _might have_ /_Past Par._/,
Thou _might-st have_ /_Past Par._/,
3. He _might have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _might have_ /_Past Par._/.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. If I / _Pres._ /, 1. If we / _Pres._ /,
2. If you / _Pres._ /, 2. If you / _Pres._ /,
If thou / _Pres._ /,
3. If he / _Pres._ /; 3. If they / _Pres._ /.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. / _Pres._ / (you _or_ thou); 2. / _Pres._ / (you).
INFINITIVES.
PRESENT TENSE.
To / _Pres._ /.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
To _have_ /_Past Par._/.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.
/_Pres./ing_. /_Past Par._/ _Having /Past Par./_
+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In
the indicative, present, third, singular, _es_ is sometimes added instead
of _s_; and in the second person, old style, _st_ is sometimes added
instead of _est_.
LESSON 94.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.
In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each
verb.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I am ----, 1. We are ----,
2. You are ---- _or_ 2. You are ----,
Thou art ----,
3. He is ----; 3. They are ----.
PAST TENSE.
1. I was ----, 1. We were ----,
2. You were ----, _or_ 2. You were ----,
Thou wast ----,
3. He was ----; 3. They were ----.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I shall be ----, 1. We shall be ----,
2. You will be ----, _or_ 2. You will be ----,
Thou wilt be ----,
3. He will be ----; 3. They will be ----.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have been ----, 1. We have been ----,
2. You have been ---- _or_ 2. You have been ----,
Thou hast been ----,
3. He has been ----; 3. They have been ----.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had been ----, 1. We had been ----,
2. You had been ---- _or_ 2. You had been ----,
Thou hadst been ----,
3. He had been ----; 3. They had been ----.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. I shall have been ----, 1. We shall have been ----,
2. You will have been ---- _or_ 2. You will have been ----,
Thou wilt have been ----,
3. He will has been ----; 3. They will have been ----.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I may be ----, 1. We may be ----,
2. You may be ---- _or_ 2. You may be ----,
Thou mayst be ----,
3. He may be ----; 3. They may be ----.
PAST TENSE.
1. I might be ----, 1. We might be ----,
2. You might be ---- _or_ 2. You might be ----,
Thou mightst be ----,
3. He might be ----; 3. They might be ----.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have been ----, 1. We may have been ----,
2. You may have been ---- _or_ 2. You may have been ----,
Thou mayst have been ----,
3. He may have been ----; 3. They may have been ----.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I might have been ----, 1. We might have been ----,
2. You might have been ---- _or_ 2. You might have been ----,
Thou mightst have been ----,
3. He might have been ----; 3. They might have been ----.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. If I be ----, 1. If we be ----,
2. If you be ---- _or _ 2. If you be ----,
If thou be ----,
3. If he be ----; 3. If they be ----.
PAST TENSE.
1. If I were ----, 1. If we were ----,
2. If you were ---- _or_ 2. If you were ----,
If thou wert ----,
3. If he were ----; 3. If they were ----.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. Be (you _or_ them) ----; 2. Be (you)------.
INFINITIVES.
PRESENT TENSE.
To be ----.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
To have been ----.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.
Being ----. Been. Having been ----.
+To the Teacher+.--After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with
the verb _be_ as a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in
making the +Progressive Form+ and the +Passive Form+.
The _progressive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the
_present participle_ of some verb.
The _passive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _past
participle_ of a _transitive_ verb.
Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left.
In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive
form, it is the same as in the simple.
LESSON 95.
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB.
+To the Teacher+.--For additional matter, see pp. 163-167.
+_Remember_+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and
person.
Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write
sentences in which each form shall be used correctly.
_Common forms_.--Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were.
_Old forms_.--Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art,
wast.
When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with
them in the plural. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the
pronoun_.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+Model+.--Poverty and obscurity _oppresses_ him who thinks that _it is
oppressive_.
Wrong: the verb _oppresses_ should be changed to _oppress_ to agree with
its two subjects, connected by _and_. The pronoun _it_ should be changed to
_they_ to agree with its two antecedents, and the verb _is_ should be
changed to _are_ to agree with _they_.
Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success.
Time and tide waits for no man.
The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun.
The mule and the horse was harnessed together.
Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful.
+Model+.--The preceding sentence is wrong. The verb _seem_ is plural, and
it should be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by
_each_, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately.
Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty.
Every book and every paper were found in their place.
When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_,
it must agree with them in the singular. _A similar rule applies to the
agreement of the pronoun_.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
One or the other have made a mistake in their statement.
Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance.
Either the president or his secretary were responsible.
Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home.
To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary _shall_ is
used in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third; but when a
speaker determines or promises, he uses _will_ in the first person and
_shall_ in the second and third.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
I will freeze, if I do not move about.
You shall feel better soon, I think.
She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow.
I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me.
You will have it, if I can get it for you.
He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it.
He will not do it, if I can prevent him.
I will drown, nobody shall help me.
I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it.
We will have gone by to-morrow morning.
You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return.
I do not think I will like the change.
Next Tuesday shall be your birthday.
You shall be late, if you do not hurry.
LESSON 96.
ERRORS IN THE FORM OF THE VERB.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+Model+.--Those things _have_ not _came to-day_.
Wrong, because the past _came_ is here used for the past participle _come_.
The present perfect tense is formed by prefixing _have_ to the _past
participle_.
I done all my work before breakfast.
I come in a little late yesterday.
He has went to my desk without permission.
That stupid fellow set down on my new hat.
_Set_ is generally transitive, and _sit_ is intransitive. _Lay_ is
transitive, and _lie_ is intransitive.
He sat the chair in the corner.
Sit that plate on the table, and let it set.
I have set in this position a long time.
That child will not lay still or set still a minute.
I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery.
Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay.
Those boys were drove out of the fort three times.
I have rode through the park.
I done what I could.
He has not spoke to-day.
The leaves have fell from the trees.
This sentence is wrote badly.
He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke.
He teached me grammar.
I seen him when he done it.
My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window.
The bird has flew into that tall tree.
I was chose leader.
I have began to do better. I begun this morning.
My breakfast was ate in a hurry.
Your dress sets well.
That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg.
He has tore it up and throwed it away.
William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it.
This should be well shook.
I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing.
We drunk from a pure spring.
I thought you had forsook us.
His pencil is nearly wore up.
He come, and tell me all he knowed about it.
LESSON 97.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+To the Teacher+.--See "Scheme," p. 187.
How many modifications have verbs? Ans.--_Five; viz., voice, mode, tense,
number, and person_. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each.
Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an
infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles
are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are
there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a
verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are
auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb?
Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb
has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of _shall_
and _will_.
+To the Teacher+.--Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the
pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49,
and 56.
+Model for Written Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders
away to seek new lands_.
CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX.
_Verbs_. _Kind_. _Voice_. _Mode_. _Tense_. _Num_. _Per_.
*selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. --- --- --- --- Mod. of _Yankee_.
wanders Reg., Int. --- Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of "
*seek Inf, Ir., Tt, Ac. --- " --- --- Prin. word in phrase
Mod. of _wanders_.
[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no _person_ or _number_.]
LESSON 98.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain
the nature of the verb.
Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature
of the participle.
+Model+.-- ----_in building a snow fort_. They were engaged _in building a
snow fort_. The participle _building_, like a noun, follows the preposition
_in_, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the
object complement _fort_.
---- by foretelling storms. ---- by helping others. ---- on approaching
the house. ----- in catching fish.
Use the following phrases as subjects.
Walking in the garden ----. His writing that letter ----. Breaking a
promise ----.
Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the
dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs.
---- in sledges. ---- up the Hudson. ---- down the Rhine. ---- through
the Alps. ---- with snow and ice. ---- into New York Bay. ---- on the
prairie. ---- at Saratoga.
Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech.
Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences.
Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon,
and stars.
Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple
sentence,
Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came
down into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals.
Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences.
When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously.
Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor.
When spring comes, the birds will return.
Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing
the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other
changes.
A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention.
I saw a man who was plowing a field.
When the shower had passed, we went on our way.
I heard that he wrote that article.
That he was a foreigner was well known.
I am not sure that he did it.
Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it.
Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences.
+Model+.--Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the
clouds disperse.
Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit.
Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster shells.
Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870.
Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone.
Expand each of the following sentences as much as you can.
Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves.
LESSON 99.
MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
I have got that book at home.
+Model+.--Wrong, because _have_, alone, asserts possession. _Got_, used in
the sense of _obtained_, is correct; as, _I have just got the book_.
Have you got time to help me?
There is many mistakes in my composition.
+Model+.--Wrong, because _is_ should agree with its plural subject
_mistakes_. The adverb _there_ is often used to introduce a sentence, that
the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound
smooth, and gives variety.
There goes my mother and sister.
Here comes the soldiers.
There was many friends to greet him.
It ain't there.
+Model+.--_Ain't_ is a vulgar contraction. Correction--It _is not_ there.
I have made up my mind that it ain't no use.
'Tain't so bad as you think.
Two years' interest were due.
Every one of his acts were criticised.
I, Henry, and you have been chosen.
+Model+.--Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one
spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last.
He invited you and I and Mary.
Me and Jane are going to the fair.
I only want a little piece.
He is a handsome, tall man.
Did you sleep good?
How much trouble one has, don't they?
He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper.
You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got no time to answer.
Him that is diligent will succeed.
He found the place sooner than me.
Who was that? It was me and him.
If I was her, I would say less.
Bring me them tongs.
Us boys have a base-ball club.
Whom did you say that it was?
Who did you speak to just now?
Who did you mean, when you said that?
Where was you when I called?
There's twenty of us going.
Circumstances alters cases.
Tell them to set still.
He laid down by the fire.
She has lain her book aside.
It takes him everlastingly.
That was an elegant old rock.
LESSON 100.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires!
3. You wrong me, Brutus.
4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction?
5. Why stand we here idle?
6. Give me liberty, or give me death!
7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto
the clouds.
8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of
thy thunder was in the heaven.
9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory.
10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the
boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent
objects.
11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran
to God.
12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the
beginning.
13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field.
14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would
immediately die.
15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and
sideways.
16. Matter exists in three states--the solid state, the liquid state, and
the gaseous state.
17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light.
18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings.
19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from
which he can never arise.
20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours
Now point the rifle's barrel;
And hands then stained with fruits and flowers
Bear redder stains of quarrel.
CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION.
+Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry,
(3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question
introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered
or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital
letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things
personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the
words _I_ and _O_, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small
letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are
made.]
+Examples+.--1. The judicious are always a minority.
2. Honor and shame from no condition rise;
Act well your part, there all the honor lies.
3. The question is, "Can law make people honest?"
4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They
instruct.
5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay.
6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire.
7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington.
8. The use of _O_ and _oh_ I am now to explain.
9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne.
+Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative
sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman
notation.
For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above.
+Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause
should be followed by an interrogation point.
+Example+.--King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?
+Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the
exclamation point.
+Example+.--Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +_Comma_+.--Set off
by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected
with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not
restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle
used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless
restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb
clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a
word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced
into a sentence, unless _formally_ introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an
attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having
the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases,
unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when
short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and
of other phrases, when long or differently modified.
+_Examples_+.--l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished
metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city.
3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal.
4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from
us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this,
then, is your verdict. 7. God said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's
signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." 9. Rubbers, or
overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the
otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast
heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air,
and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions.
+_Semicolon_+.--Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2)
when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon.
Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common
dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before _as, viz.,
to wit., namely, i. e._, and _that is_, when they introduce examples or
illustrations.
+_Examples_+.--1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels
whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I
rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I
slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial
before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon
writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit,
laziness."
+_Colon_+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these
parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation
or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced.
+_Examples_+.--l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply
ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features
of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear
this message: "Their graves are measured."
+_Dash_+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or
figures, and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing
illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the
sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a
slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or
phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead
of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their
force.
+_Examples_+.--1. In M------w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2.
There are two things certain in this world--taxes and death. 3. I said--I
know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms--_never_-- NEVER--+NEVER+.
5. Fulton started a steamboat----he called it the Clermont--on the Hudson
in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,--I write this letter for information.
+_Marks of Parenthesis_+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what
has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence.
+Example+.--The noun (Lat. _nomen_, a name) is the first part of speech.
+_Apostrophe_+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters,
(2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to
distinguish the possessive from other cases.
+_Examples_+.--1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is
there one-half of which is _p's_? 3. He washed the disciples' feet.
+_Hyphen_+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words
that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is
divided.
+_Examples_+.--1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide _basket_ thus:
_bas-ket_.
+_Quotation Marks_+--Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or
passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed
within single marks.
+_Example_+---The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there
be light.'"
+_Brackets_+.--Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's
words, you insert by way of explanation or correction.
+_Example_+.--The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of
the morning."
SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS.
+_To the Teacher_+.--It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining
simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving
complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining
statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand,
transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express
the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will
furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below.
+_Direction_+.--Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following
groups of sentences:--
+_Example_+.--This man is to be pitied. He has no friends.
1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied.
2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends.
3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied.
4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied.
5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied.
6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied.
7. This friendless man deserves our pity.
1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its
body.
2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile.
3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain.
They spread over the whole body.
4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have
been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John
Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz.
5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This
machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated.
This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This
machine is more wonderful.
You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by
being combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other
connectives, and make their sentences too long.
Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of
the parts are not clear.
As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to
make _paragraphs_.
A +_paragraph_+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing
one point or one division of a general subject.
The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be
written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines.
+_Direction_+.--Combine the following statements into sentences and
paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:--
Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about
three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It
takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly
taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air
contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes
lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine
particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little
particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night
the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air
touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its
moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals
drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves
and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our
clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a
great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is
converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work
of thousands of men and horses.
+_To the Teacher_+.--Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book
not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be
required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs.
LETTER-WRITING.
In writing a letter there are six things to consider--the _Heading_, the
_Introduction_, the _Body of the Letter_, the _Conclusion_, the _Folding_,
and the _Superscription_.
THE HEADING.
+_Parts_+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +_Place_+ at which the
letter is written, and the +_Date_+. If you write from a city, give the
door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of
the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known
institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of
the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your
post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state.
The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
+_How Written_+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top
of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note--and a little to
the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may
stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line
should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to
the right than the second.
The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more
lines.
The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the
rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item
is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period.
_Direction_.--Study what has been said, and write the following headings
according to these models:---
1. Hull, Mass., Nov. 1, 1860.
2. 1466 Colorado Ave.,
Rochester, N. Y.,
Apr. 3, 1870.
3. Newburyport, Mass.,
June 30, 1826.
4. Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y.,
Dec. 19, 1871.
1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january.
3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february
montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave
may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave
16.
THE INTRODUCTION.
_+Parts+_.--The Introduction consists of the _+Address+_--the Name, the
Title, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed--and
the _+Salutation+_. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the
Address. Prefix _Mr._ (plural, _Messrs_.) to a man's name; _Master_ to a
boy's name; _Miss_ to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady; _Mrs._ to
the name of a married lady. Prefix _Dr_. to the name of a physician, or
write _M.D._ after his name. Prefix _Rev_. (or _The Rev_.) to the name of a
clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefix _Rev. Dr_., or write
_Rev_. before his name and _D.D._ after it; if you do not know his
Christian name, prefix _Rev. Mr._ or _Rev. Dr._ to his surname, but never
_Rev_. alone. _Esq._ is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of
other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following: _Mr. John
Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D._, etc.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's
degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Rev. Sir,
General, Madam, Miss Brown_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_,
etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown_, etc.; and
near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy,
Dearest Ellen_, etc.
_+How Written+_.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next
line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it
may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the
Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address
may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other
letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the
top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the
left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the
marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial
words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading.
Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it,
when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to
the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies
two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address
occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below.
Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All
the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an
abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word
in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should
be followed by a comma.
_+Direction+_.--Study what has been said, and write the following
introductions according to these models:--
1. Dear Father,
I write, etc.
2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D.,
President of U. V. M.,
Burlington, Vt.
My dear Sir,
3. Messrs. Clark & Brown,
Quogue, N. Y.
Gentlemen,
4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co.,
2 Milk St., Boston.
Dear Sirs,
1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear
sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof
geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive
mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6.
messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen mass boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn
rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of
state Washington d c sir.
THE BODY OF THE LETTER.
+_The Beginning_+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the
Salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the Introduction consists of four
lines--in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a
dash;--otherwise, on the line _below_.
+_Style_+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of
writing. Spell correctly; write legibly, neatly, and with care.
_Letters of friendship_ should be colloquial, natural, and familiar.
Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends.
_Business letters_ should be brief, and the sentences should be short,
concise, and to the point.
In _formal notes_ the third person is generally used instead of the first
and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only
the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the
page.
THE CONCLUSION.
_+Parts+_.--The Conclusion consists of the _+Complimentary Close+_ and the
_+Signature+_. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are
determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters
of _friendship_ you may use _Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately ;
Your loving son or daughter_, etc. In business letters, you may use _Yours;
Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours_,
etc. In official letters use _I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient
servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant_.
The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In
addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing
a stranger should prefix her title--_Miss_ or _Mrs._--to her own name,
enclosing it within marks of parenthesis, if she prefers.
_+How Written+_.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first
line below the Body of the Letter, and should slope to the right like the
Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and
punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The
Signature should be very plain.
THE FOLDING.
The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted
in length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you,
with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the
length of the sheet, bring the top down over this, taking care that the
sides are even, and press the parts together.
Taking the envelope with its back toward you, insert the letter, putting in
first the edge last folded. The form of the envelope may require the letter
to be folded in the middle. Other conditions may require other ways of
folding.
THE SUPERSCRIPTION.
_+Parts+_.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the
envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title,
and the full Directions of the one addressed.
_+How Written+_.--The Superscription should begin near the middle of the
envelope and near the left edge-- the envelope lying with its closed side
toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope
to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the
lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower
right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand.
If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street
should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the
name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the
post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the
third--(or by itself near the lower left-hand corner), and the name of the
state on the fourth. The titles following the name should be separated from
it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a
comma, except the last, which should be followed by a period. The lines
should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible.
Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner.
LETTER, ORDERING MERCHANDISE.
[Cursive:
Newburgh, N. Y.
Jan. 7. 1888
Messrs. Hyde & Co.,
250 Broadway. N. Y.
Gentlemen,
Please send me by Adams Express the articles mentioned in the enclosed
list.
Be careful in the selection of the goods, as I desire them for a special
class of customers.
When they are forwarded, please inform me by letter and enclose the
invoice.
Yours truly,
Thomas Dodds.]
ANSWER, ENCLOSING INVOICE.
[Cursive:
250 Broadway, N. Y.
Jan 9, 1888.
Mr. Thomas Dodds,
Newburgh, N. Y.
Dear Sir,
We have to-day sent you by Adams Express the goods ordered in your letter
of the 7th inst. Enclosed you will find the invoice.
We hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove
satisfactory in quality and in price.
Very truly yours,
Peter Hyde & Co.]
INVOICE.
Thomas Dodds,
Bought of Peter Hyde & Co.
3 boxes Sperm Candles. 140 lbs., @33c. $46.20
7 do. Adamantine Extra Candles, 182 lbs., "26c. 47.32
120 lbs. Crushed Sugar, "12-1/2c. 15.00
60 do. Coffee do., "11-1/4c. 6.75
-----
$115.27
LETTER OF APPLICATION.
[Cursive:
176 Clinton St. Brooklyn, N. Y.
Dec. 12, 1887
Messrs. Fisk & Hatch,
5 Nassau St., N. Y.
Gentlemen,
Learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant, I beg
leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place. I am sixteen years old,
and am strong and in excellent health. I have just graduated with honor
from the seventh grade of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, and I
enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the President of
that Institution.
If you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself at
such time and place as you may name.
Very respectfully yours,
Charles Hastings.]
NOTES OF INVITATION AND ACCEPTANCE
(in the third person).
_Mr. and Mrs. Brooks request the pleasure of Mr. Churchill's company at a
social gathering, next Tuesday evening, at_ 8 _o'clock_.
32 _W_. 31_st Street, Oct_. 5.
_Mr. Churchill has much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brooks's kind
invitation to a social gathering next Tuesday evening_.
160 _Fifth Ave., Oct_. 5.
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION.
[Cursive:
Concord, N. H.
Jan. 10, 1888.
George Chapman, Esq.,
Portland, Conn.
My dear Friend,
It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend, Mr. Alpheus
Crane. Any attention you may be able to show him I shall esteem as a
personal favor.
Sincerely yours,
Peter Cooper.]
A LETTER OF FRIENDSHIP.
[Cursive:
21 Dean St., Toledo, Ohio.
Dec. 16, 1887.
My dear Mother,
I cannot tell you how I long to be at home again and in my old place. In my
dreams and in my waking hours, I am often back at the old homestead; my
thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to
my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all
doing--so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that
you do indeed miss me at home.
Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am
sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of
homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and
faithful.
Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything.
Much love to each of the dear ones at home.
Your affectionate son,
Henry James.
[Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you
will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.]
[Illustration of Envelope: Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Summit Co.
Ohio.]
+_To the Teacher_+.--Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of
all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed.
Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the
word _Introducing_ (followed by the name of the one introduced) at the
lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed.
The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed.
Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the
details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter.
A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a
predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.
II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the
same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.
III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive
case.
IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the
principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case.
V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as
the word explained.
VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.
With two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the pronoun is plural.
With two or more singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, the
pronoun is singular.
VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
With two or more subjects connected by _and_, the verb is plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb is
singular.
VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an
adjective or a noun.
IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a
phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in
sense, of its principal word to the word modified.
XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
XIV. Interjections are used independently.
+PROOF-MARKS+.
+Remark+.--The following are some of the marks used in correcting
proof-sheets for the printer:--
[Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out.
[^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted.
[/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as
corrections.
[Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period.
[tr.] Transpose.
[Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [.
[No Symbol: para] No new paragraph.
[Symbol: v' ] This calls attention to the apostrophe.
+To the Teacher+.--We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in
correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as
illustrations:--
[Illustration: Corrected letter]
NOTES FOR TEACHERS.
AGREEMENT.
Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons
6 and 7, the subjects that add _s_ to denote more than one, and then to
mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the _s_ is dropped from
these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or
dropping _s_, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9,
_s_ may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be
found to agree.
At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid
such technical terms as _number, person, tense_, etc. The pupils may be led
to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises
and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such
conclusion as the following:--
When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, _s_ or
_es_ is added (unless the subject is _I_ or _you_).
Let the pupils see that the _s_-form of the verb is used only in telling
what one thing _does_, not what it _did_; as, "The boy _runs_," "The boy
_ran_"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "_He
runs_," "_I run_."
Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of _is,
was_, and _has_, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced
by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that
they may note the change of _is_ to _are_, _was_ to _were_, and _has_ to
_have_. The forms _does_ and _do_ may also be introduced, and these
exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as
the following:--
_Is, was, has_, and _does_ are used with subjects denoting but one. _Are,
were, have_, and _do_ are used with subjects denoting more than one.
We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be
introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the
sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first
auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving
line under each predicate, thus:--
~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~
The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making
interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.
In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of
verbs with _I_ and _you_. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will
draw the following conclusions:--
_I_ can be used with _am, was, have_, and _do_. _You_ may mean one or more
than one, but the verb always agrees as if _you_ meant more than one.
Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You
_were_," "They _were_," "We _were_," "He _doesn't_," etc., and to repeat
them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.
When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little
danger of errors in agreement, except that _was_ is often used incorrectly
for _were_, and _don't_ for _doesn't_. The chief object of introducing
these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will
readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when
these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine
the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it
sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like
the following:--
1 is are
2 was were
3 has have
4 does do
5 comes come
6 goes go
7 thinks think
8 writes write
1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ _each_ of these names ~begin~?
2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important _exceptions_.
3. The _farm_, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~.
4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative _sentences_ ~end~?
5. Every _effort_ of the friends of these measures (3) failed.
6. There (5) trying _times_ in every man's life.
7. _One_ of them (6) to Vassar College.
8. Not _one_ in ten (7) about this.
9. _Neither_ of you (8) correctly.
10. After this (5) the calisthenic _exercises_.
11. A _cargo_ of Delaware peaches (3) arrived.
12. There (6) the cars.
13. There (6) a _train_ of cars.
After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by
the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is
familiar.
Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, _were identified_ is asserted of
two things, and that in (3) _was anticipated_ is asserted of one of two
things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects
with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of
_singular_ and _plural_ may be explained, and the pupils may form some such
rule as the following:--
With two or more subjects connected by _and_ the verb agrees in the plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ the verb
agrees in the singular.
The pupils may examine such sentences as--
1. Each word and gesture _was_ suited to the thought;
2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass _rejoices_ after the warm rain;
3. No dew, no rain, no cloud _comes_ to the relief of the parched
earth;--
and note that _each_, _every_, and _no_ show that the things named in the
different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore
singular.
Such sentences as--
"In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman _was_ lost to the
world"--
may be given to show that subjects connected by _and_ may name the same
thing, and so take a verb in the singular.
Such examples as the following may be given and justified:--
1. Beauty and utility _are_ combined in nature.
2. Either beauty or utility _appears_ in every natural object.
3. Here _is_ neither beauty nor utility.
4. Time and tide _wait_ for no man.
5. Wisdom and prudence _dwell_ with the lowly man.
6. _Does_ either landlord or tenant profit by this bill?
7. Neither landlords nor tenants _profit_ by this bill.
8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly _is_ provided with six feet.
9. That desperate robber and murderer _was_ finally secured.
10. That desperate robber and that murderer _were_ finally secured.
11. The builder and owner of the yacht _has_ sailed from Liverpool.
12. The builder and the owner of the yacht _have_ sailed from Liverpool.
13. A lame and blind man _was_ provided with food and lodging.
14. A lame and a blind man _were_ provided with food and lodging.
Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may
note the effect of repeating _that_, _the_, and _a_.
Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed
rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions.
Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils
become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and
general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated,
but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the
judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the
following may be introduced:--
1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better--He is not going, nor am I.)
2. Neither John nor his _sisters were_ there.
3. _Action_, and not words, _is_ needed.
4. _Bread and milk is_ good food.
5. The _committee are_ unable to agree on _their_ report.
6. The _committee has_ made _its_ report.
Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in
examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and
that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the
verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood
with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one
article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are
thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and
(6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be
introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply
to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned
of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why
the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:--
1. You and I are invited.
2. Mary and I are invited.
3. You and Mary are invited.
4. You and Mary and I are invited.
WRITING NAMES--CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of
abbreviations see p. 191.]
Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in
form:--
Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City,
statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens,
Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W.
Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier,
gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general,
General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine
Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha."
John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress."
The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."
We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an
+Observation Lesson+.--Are _city_ and _Albany_ both names? What difference
can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written
are _class_ names? Which are _individual_ names? Mention an individual name
made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do
you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are
written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts
of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or _abbreviated_, by
omitting all but the first, or _initial_, letter. Mention an _abbreviation_
containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new
use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in
this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the
title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of
these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the
first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups?
Notice that these are the principal words.
For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting
carefully capitals and punctuation marks:--
1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan.
2. The steamer _City of Chicago_ sails from Jersey City.
3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule.
4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea.
5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman.
6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window."
7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of
Uncle Remus.
8. Miss Evans--afterward Mrs. Lewes--was the author of "The Mill on the
Floss."
9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father.
10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah.
11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV.
preceded Victoria.
The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:--
+Observation Lesson+.--Is _Chicago_, or _city of Chicago_ the individual
name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is _Chicago_, or _City of Chicago_ the
name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named
_Jersey_, or _Jersey City_? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as
_Michigan_, or _Lake Michigan_? What is the name of the island mentioned in
(3)?--in (4)? Is _Irish_, or _Irish Sea_ the name of the body of water
mentioned in (4)?
Notice that _Spanish_, in (3), and _English_, in (5), are not names, or
nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the
individual names _Spain_ and _England_.
What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as
_uncle, captain, professor_, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals
unless prefixed to individual names.
What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)?
Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
In (8) do you find a period after _Miss_?--after _Mrs._?
_Miss_ is not written as an abbreviation.
What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is _Old
Testament_ the particular name of?
What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of
geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.
We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to
illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp.
146-161.) The writing of _headings, introductions, conclusions_, and
_superscriptions_ will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The
_body_ of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an
invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to
be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or
the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the
characters and of the places mentioned.
ADJECTIVES--CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.
Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge
of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is,
to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore
recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The
exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of
adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required
to join them to appropriate nouns:--
_Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses_.
+Seeing+,
scarlet
crimson
florid
sallow
opaque
dingy
vivid
gorgeous
gaudy
variegated
verdant
transparent
+Hearing+,
audible
stunning
thundering
deafening
purling
husky
monotonous
discordant
melodious
+Smelling+,
fragrant
balmy
odorous
rancid
fetid
aromatic
+Tasting+,
acid
acrid
pungent
delicious
insipid
brackish
palatable
savory
luscious
+Feeling+.
rough
gritty
hard
keen
tepid
sultry
Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above.
Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison,
measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to
right and wrong, etc.
Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be
required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the
things named:--
chalk
ice
brooks
clouds
water
snow
ocean
music
Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following
adjectives:--
timid
fleet
cunning
ferocious
gentle
graceful
sagacious
venomous
Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command
overwork and abuse such words as--
_nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely_.
We hear of _nice mountains_, _awful pens_, _horrid ink_, _splendid pie_,
_elegant beef_, _lovely cheese_, etc.
Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use
them to fill the following blanks:--
| distinction
----------+ workmanship
| calculation
| stillness
----------+ chasm
| rumbling
| child
----------+ features
| character
| palace
----------+ victory
| illumination
| manners
----------+ taste
| furniture
| deeds
----------+ dreams
| butchery
This work may very profitable be extended.
A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,
"A _great_, _large_, _roomy_, spacious hall";
"_Superb_, delicious, _magnificent_ pumpkin-pie";
"A _stingy_, miserly, _close-fisted_ fellow."
The italicized words may be omitted.
Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.
Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to
note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer
the following exercise as a specimen:--
We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney-back,--
The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
And on its top the stout back-stick;
The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
And filled between with curious art
The ragged brush; then, hovering near,
We watched the first red blaze appear,
Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,
Until the old, rude-furnished room
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
_Whittier.--Snow-Bound_.
+Observation Lesson+.--Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in
what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?
What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives
that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that
follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of
different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same
rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?
Notice how the noun _crackle_ crackles as you pronounce it, and how the
adjective _sharp_ makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made
in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used
bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities
bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is
what we must try to make our adjectives do.
Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office
of each.
What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?
Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will
apply to adverbs also.
ARRANGEMENT.
The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for
themselves the _natural order_ of words and phrases:--
(_a_) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
(_b_) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician.
(_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright.
(_d_) We saw it distinctly.
(_e_) We had often been there.
(_f_) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
+Observation Lesson+.--The words and the phrases in the sentences above
stand in their _Natural Order_.
From (_a_) and (_b_) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate,
and complement. From (_b_) determine the natural order of a possessive
modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_),
(_d_), and (_e_) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a
verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective
or another adverb. Determine from (_a_) and (_f_) the natural order of a
phrase.
Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation
of the phrases:--
(_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations.
(_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations.
(_i_) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given.
(_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
+Observation Lesson+.--Phrases in their natural order follow the words they
modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most
closely modifying it stands nearest to it.
In the first sentence above, _to me_ tells to whom the place is endeared;
_by many associations_ tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore
placed after to me. Try the effect of placing _to me_ last. Phrases, like
adjectives, may be of different rank.
Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice
that _to me_, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and
that it is set off by the comma.
In (_i_), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus
making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the
phrase off by the comma.
Place the phrase of (_i_) in three other positions, and set it off. When
the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many
commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?
Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having
been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to
be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best
kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant
particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?
What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see
whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.
In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and
the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited
opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
Such questions as those on (_i_) above may suggest a mode of easy approach
to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils
see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis, as in
(_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding
his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (_i_) above, or
in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce,
he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of
the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In
1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and
for other reasons.
Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils
discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.
Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following
sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:--
1. Victories, indeed, they were.
2. Down came the masts.
3. Here stands the man.
4. Doubtful seemed the battle.
5. Wide open stood the doors.
6. A mighty man is he.
7. That gale I well remember.
8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh.
9. Blood-red became the sun.
10. Louder waxed the applause.
11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong.
12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred.
14. So died the great Columbus of the skies.
15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old
Anchises bear.
16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats.
17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared.
18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school,
the most difficult and valuable.
Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order,
and explain the effect of the change:--
19. He could not avoid it.
20. He would not escape.
21. I must go.
22. He ended his tale here.
23. It stands written so.
24. She seemed young and sad.
25. I will make one more effort to save you.
26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
27. I came into the world helpless.
28. A sincere word was never utterly lost.
29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?
31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico?
32. Whom did you see?
33. What is poetry?
34. Which course will you choose?
35. Why are the days shorter in winter?
36. When was America discovered?
37. Were you there?
38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier
of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a
modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and
(36).
When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _analysis_.
REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and
instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be
required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective
and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to
discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general
subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these
sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be
suggested.
RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION.
The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers
is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following
examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:--
(_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear.
(_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
(_c_) Use words that are current.
(_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
(_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France.
(_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks.
(_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot.
(_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:--
In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two
words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_)
and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply
add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application
of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes
without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Glass
bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is
restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to
the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does
not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what
he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If
(_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma
would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the
comma.
Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive
modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to
the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory
words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow
closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or
into adjective phrases.
Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the
study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of
relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be
changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its
parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when
it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the
punctuation of these examples.
Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the
comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as,
"You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)."
Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for
the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb
clauses.
NOUN CLAUSES.
Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" =
"_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly
realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend's
being gone_." By substituting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause
maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we
should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my
friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made
prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His
story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_."
Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as
attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that
are quotations need special treatment.
NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS.
We suggest the following observation lesson:--
1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good."
2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good.
3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out,
'Where is it?'"
4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking
where it is.
5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without
digesting."
6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"?
7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed
minds."
8. We must ask, What are we living for?
9. We must ask what we are living for.
+Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his
sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like
inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this
copied passage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_.
Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed
in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_
Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation
contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order
of the marks at the end of (3).
Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question
quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred
to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every
difference in the form of these.
In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a
parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does
it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally
introduced_.
In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that,
like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person
or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the
differences between (8) and (9).
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the
quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is
reversed. Point out illustrations above.
Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and
quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent
quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination,
discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses
contracted, transposed, etc.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but
once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67.
They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily
understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a
poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable
information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected
expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils
to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required
to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of
connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting,
expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a
great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p.
144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may
then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the
explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in
the Supplement.
We give below material for one composition:--
Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be
distinguished.
In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively.
Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance
of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air
by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs
begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen.
Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been
forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One
fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find
that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular
reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down
upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered
upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under
which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable
discipline.
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize,
to read intelligently and profitably.
The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for
paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.
This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has
been passed over in the text-book.
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.
It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb
modifier. We offer the following explanation:--
"Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her
arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not
_safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the
sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as
perceived by its shining).
You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing
named or the _manner_ of the action.
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above,
you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used
correctly:--
1. I feel sad.
2. I feel deeply.
3. I feel miserable.
4. He appeared prompt and willing.
5. He appeared promptly and willingly.
6. She looks beautiful.
7. She sings beautifully.
PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.
When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often
confounded in use; as,
I _done_ it;
I _seen_ it.
Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using
the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past
Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound
verbs.
They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:--
The _Past_ is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the _Past
Participle_ never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the
completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a
predicate or as an infinitive.
Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:--
1. _Lay_ down your pen.
2. _Lie_ down, Rover.
3. I _laid_ down my pen.
4. The dog then _lay_ down.
5. I have _laid_ down my pen.
6. The dog has _lain_ down.
7. _Set_ the pail down.
8. _Sit_ down and rest.
9. I then _set_ it down.
10. I _sat_ down and rested.
11. I have _set_ it down.
12. I have _sat_ down.
13. My work was _laid_ aside.
14. I was _lying_ down.
15. The trap was _set_ by the river.
16. I was _sitting_ by the river.
17. The garment _sits_ well.
18. The hen _sits_ on her eggs.
19. He came in and _lay_ down.
20. The Mediterranean _lies_ between Europe and Africa.
Notice that we may speak of _laying_ something or _setting_ something, or
may say that something is _laid_ or is _set_; but we cannot speak of
_lying_ or _sitting_ something, or of something being _lain_ or _sat_.
_Set_, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun
_set_;" "He _set_ out on a journey."
_Lay_, the present of the first verb, and _lay_, the past of _lie_, may
easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time
expressed.
POSSESSIVE FORMS.
Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:--
The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a
day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys;
the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies'
manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's
wages; those children's toys; women's hats.
This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement
as the following:--
(_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs, (_'_) being used when _s_ has
been added to denote more than one, (_'s_) in other cases.
Such expressions as the following may be copied:--
Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the
Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.
This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may
be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last
word only.
THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.
The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review
course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation
may aid some teachers:--
In "It made him _sad_," _made_ does not fully express the action performed
upon him--not "_made_ him," but "_made sad_ (saddened) him." _Sad_ helps
_made_ to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the
result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object _him_.
Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an
_Objective Complement_.
Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,
"They made Victoria _queen_,"
"It made him _weep_;"
"It kept him _laughing_."
They | made / queen | Victoria
======|=========================
|
+Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward
the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object.
A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.
The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be
_him_," in which _it_ is object complement and _to be him_ is objective
complement. _Him_, the attribute complement of _be_, is in the objective
case because _it_, the assumed subject of _be_, is objective. Let the
pupils compare "I proved it to be _him_" with "I proved that it was _he;_"
"_Whom_ did you suppose it to be?" with "_Who_ did you suppose it was?"
etc.
NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.
The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding
Lessons, may be introduced in a review course.
1. He gave _John_ a book.
2. He bought _me_ a book.
_John_ and _me_, as here used, are generally called _Indirect Objects_. The
"indirect object" names the one _to_ or _for_ whom something is done. We
treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change
the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book _to
John;_" "He bought a book _for me_."
Nouns denoting _measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance_, or
_direction_ may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers
without the preposition; as,
1. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_.
2. It weighs one _pound_.
3. It is worth a _dollar_.
4. The wall is ten _feet_, six _inches_ high.
5. I went _home_ that way.
The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the
"noun of measure:"--
They offered Caesar the crown three times.
They | offered | crown
=======|====================
| \ \ \the
\ \ times
\ \------
\ \three
\ Caesar
\------
+Explanation+.--_Caesar_ (the "indirect object") and _times_ (denoting
measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of
prepositional phrases.
SCHEMES FOR REVIEW.
These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils
should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.
Scheme for the Sentence.
(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
PARTS.
+Subject+.
Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19).
Phrase (49).
Clause (61).
+Predicate+.
Verb (6,16).
+Complements+.
Object.
Noun or Pronoun (39).
Phrase (49).
Clause (61).
Attribute.
Adjective (39).
Noun or Pronoun (42).
Phrase.
Clause (61).
+Modifiers+.
Adjectives (20, 22).
Adverbs (24, 27).
Participles (48).
Nouns and Pronouns (53).
Phrases (31, 48, 49).
Clauses (57, 59).
+Connectives+.
Conjunctions (35, 36, 62).
Pronouns (57).
Adverbs (59).
+Independent Parts (36, 64)+.
+Classes+--+Meaning+.--Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative,
Exclamatory (63).
+Classes+--+Form+.--Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).
Scheme for the Noun.
(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
NOUN (14).
+Uses+.
Subject (6).
Object Complement (39).
Attribute Complement (42).
Adjective Modifier (53).
Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34).
Independent (64).
+Classes+.
Common (71).
Proper (71).
+Modifications+.
Number
Singular (78, 79).
Plural (78, 79).
+Gender+.
Masculine (80).
Feminine (80).
Neuter (80).
+Person+.
First (81-83).
Second (81-83).
Third (81-83).
+Case+.
Nominative (81-85).
Possessive (81-85).
Objective (81-85).
Scheme for the Pronoun.
PRONOUNS.
+Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun.
+Classes+.
Personal (71, 72).
Relative (71, 72).
Interrogative (71, 72).
Adjective (71, 72).
+Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun
(78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).
Scheme for the Verb.
(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
VERB.
+Uses+
To _assert_ action, being, or state.--Predicate (6, 16).
To _assume_ action, being, or state. Participles (48).
Infinitives (49).
+Classes+.
Form.
Regular (74).
Irregular (74, 91).
Meaning |
